Spatial and temporal assessment of snake encounters in urban Delhi, India.

Delhi, the capital city of India is, highly urbanized and surrounded by remnant forest, farms, ridges, and other green areas experience regular snake encounters in and around residential, institutional, and industrial areas. A total of 41 months of sampling from January 2019 to May 2022 was conducted wherein we, studied the snake assemblage in Delhi to determine the species composition, encounter frequency, seasonal activity patterns, and probable encounter sites in an urban setup. We documented 372 individuals belonging to 15 species from seven families out of 23 species found in Delhi. Snakes were found inside forests, public parks, homes, drain networks, streets, office buildings, and even in school-college buildings. The most recorded species being Ptyas mucosa (37.37%, n = 139), Naja naja (19.62%, n = 73), and Lycodon aulicus (13.44%, n = 50). The highest numbers of incidents were reported in the month of July (22.04%, n = 82) and August (19.89%, n = 74) during the peak monsoon season, for identifying high encounter sites, we used a geostatistical modeling tool, Ordinary kriging to identify places having more snake occurrences. We further used a statistical spatial method called average nearest neighbor distance to detect the pattern distribution of snake species. Spatial interpolation done through Ordinary kriging highlighted two areas having concentrated snake encounters. The results of the average nearest neighbor distance analysis showed three species having clustered and two species having dispersed distribution. The incidence of snake encounters was found to be highly seasonal and appeared to be associated mainly with monthly rainfall, temperature, and humidity. The findings of this study on snakes' distribution patterns provide valuable insights into the conservation of these species. Understanding their habitat preferences and spatial distribution is crucial for the implementation of effective conservation strategies.

Its all in the name: Another new Cyrtodactylus Gray (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from northern Mizoram, North-east India.

A new species of Cyrtodactylus is described from Vairengte town, situated in the Kolasib District of Mizoram State, north-eastern India. The new species is found to be a member of Indo-Burman Cyrtodactylus khasiensis clade based on ND2 gene sequences and morphological parameters, such as number of precloacal pores, mid-ventral scale rows, paravertebral tubercles on the trunk, dorsal tubercle rows, subdigital lamellae on pes and subcaudal scalation, making it the sixth endemic Cyrtodactylus from Mizoram and twenty second from north-east India. Moreover, phylogenetic evidence suggests the new species to be sister to the recently described C. aaronbaueri, and morphological analyses also reveal marginal separation between the two species based on the PCA of infralabials, lamellae on fingers and toes, paravertebral tubercles on the trunk, and dorsal tubercle rows.

Two new species of Cnemaspis Strauch, 1887 (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from southern India.

We describe two new species of Cnemaspis from Alagarkovil, Madurai District and Mekkarai, Shenkottai, Tenkasi, southern India, based on molecular and morphological data. The new species differ from their congeners by genetic divergences of 4.816.1% and 14.831.6% for the ND2 mitochondrial gene. Two new species belong to the Cnemaspis gracilis and Cnemaspis beddomei clades, respectively. Molecular data for the newly described Cnemaspis aaronbaueri from its type locality is also presented, and its phylogenetic position is established.

A new cryptic species of green pit viper of the genus Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 (Serpentes, Viperidae) from northeast India.

A new cryptic species of green pit viper is described from northeast India, based on specimens collected from the state of Mizoram and Meghalaya. The new species is a member of the subgenus Viridovipera and is sister to Trimeresurus medoensis based on molecular data for mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, whereas resembles Trimeresurus gumprechti morphologically. A combination of characters helps delimit the new species from its congeners. Description of the new species highlights the need for dedicated surveys across northeast India to document its reptilian diversity, as this represents the third new species of the genus to be described in the past three years.

A new bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus Gray: Squamata: Gekkonidae) from the state of Mizoram, India.

Herein we describe a new species of Cyrtodactylus from Lunglei District in the state of Mizoram, India. Based on morphology and ND2 gene sequences, the species was found to be a member of the Cyrtodactylus khasiensis group. The species can be identified by its moderate size (adult SVL 64.975.1 mm) with rounded, bluntly conical and feebly keeled dorsal tubercles in 2428 longitudinal rows; 3240 paravertebral tubercles between the level of the axilla and the level of the groin; 3743 mid-ventral scale rows; 35 precloacal pores in males and 57 pitted precloacal scales in females; 1618 subdigital lamellae under IV toe; no single row of transversely enlarged subcaudal scales; dorsal markings are dark brown, irregular and distinct; tail with alternating dark and light bands.

Four new Bent-toed geckos (Cyrtodactylus Gray: Squamata: Gekkonidae) from northeast India.

Based on morphology and ND2 gene sequences, four new species of Cyrtodactylus, two each from the Indian states of Meghalaya and Mizoram are described herein. The new species are a part of the Cyrtodactylus khasiensis group. The species from Meghalaya represent the lowland clade whereas the species from Mizoram represent the highland clade within the south of Brahmaputra clade of Indo-Burmese Cyrtodactylus. The two distinct populations from Meghalaya are sister to one another, differing from each by an uncorrected p-distance 0.065 and collectively are sister to Cyrtodactylus septentrionalis. The species from Mizoram differ from each other by an uncorrected p-distance of 0.0850.121 and collectively are sister to Cyrtodactylus montanus.

Another new Cyrtodactylus (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from Guwahati, Assam, India.

We describe a new species of Cyrtodactylus from Guwahati city in the state of Assam, India and provide additional data on the recently described Cyrtodactylus guwahatiensis. Cyrtodactylus urbanus sp. nov. falls in the newly defined khasiensis group within the Indo-Burma clade of Cyrtodactylus and is the poorly supported sister taxon to Cyrtodactylus khasiensis. The new species differs from other members of the khasiensis group in mitochondrial sequence data (12.5-17.1 % uncorrected pairwise ND2 sequence divergence) as well as aspects of morphology including the number and arrangement of precloacal pores in males, the number of mid-ventral scales and paravertebral tubercles, and colour pattern. This is the second Cyrtodactylus endemic to the Guwahati region, the fourth from Assam and the twelfth from Northeast India.

A new species of Polypedates Tschudi, 1838 (Amphibia: Anura: Rhacophoridae) from West Bengal State, Eastern India.

A new species of frog belonging to the genus Polypedates Tschudi is described from the state of West Bengal, Eastern India. A mid-sized frog, SVL ranges from 47.9-53.6 mm in males and 72.0 mm in the single female. The species is diagnosable in showing the following suite of characters: digits lack webbing, inner and outer metacarpal tubercles present; no dermal fold on forearm; toes webbed, webbing formula I1-1 II0.5-2III1-2IV2-0.5V; an inner metatarsal tubercle present; tibio-tarsal articulation reaches between eye and nostril; and skin on forehead co-ossified to cranium. Additionally, males possess paired vocal sacs. The new species is compared with known species of the genus Polypedates.

Proteomics of Naja kaouthia venom from North East India and assessment of Indian polyvalent antivenom by third generation antivenomics.

In the present study, venom composition, toxic effects, and immunological characteristics of Naja kaouthia venom from North East India has been studied. Using RP-HPLC, venom components were separated and proteins in the fractions were identified using ESI-LC MS/MS. Proteins identified belong to 9 different snake venom protein families. Three finger toxins and PLA2 were the most abundant protein families detected by mass spectrometry analysis. The other minor proteins families identified in the venom were kunitz-type serine inhibitors, waprin, L-amino acid oxidase, CRISP, vespyrn, nerve growth factor and metalloproteinase. This proteome composition correlated with the tested enzymatic and toxic activities of the venom. Western blot and third generation antivenomics analysis using Vins polyvalent antivenom revealed immunoreactivity towards Naja kaouthia venom of North East India. Concentration-dependent immunocapturing profile carried out using RP-HPLC displayed immunerecognition of majority of venom proteins of Naja kaouthia except few three-finger toxins. Presence of such non-immunodepleted toxins apparently may affect the performance of Vins polyvalent antivenom. Thus, inclusion of antibodies of most relevant non-immunorecognized toxins in antivenom might help to improve the quality of antivenom. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Envenomings by genus Naja, represent a serious medical problem in Asian countries including North east India. In North East India, Naja kaouthia is most prevalent cobra species causing a large number of fatalities. To gain deeper insight into the spectrum of medically relevant toxins, we applied proteomics approach to unveil the proteome profile of Naja kaouthia venom. The proteomic analysis divulged the presence of two major protein families: three finger toxins and phospholipases A2. In general, polyvalent antivenom is administered for Naja kaouthia envenomings, however, this venom is not included in the immunization mixtures (only Indian Big Four venoms) for production of these polyvalent antivenoms. For the first time, third generation antivenomics approach was used to decipher maximal binding capacity of Indian polyvalent antivenom against Naja kaouthia venom. Although Vins polyvalent antivenom was effective in immunocapturing majority of venom components, however, large amount of antivenom was required to immunocapture the venom proteins. Moreover, the study revealed poor immunorecognition capacity of Vins antivenom towards four three finger toxin subtypes. This may have significant impact on antivenom efficacy in treating Naja kaouthia envenomings.

A new species of the snake genus Hebius Thompson from Northeast India (Squamata: Natricidae).

A new species of the family Natricidae Bonaparte is described from a single specimen obtained in Arunachal State, northeastern India. On the basis of its external morphology and of its dentition on the upper maxilla, i.e. 24 + 3 distinctly enlarged teeth separated by a short diastema, it is referred to the genus Hebius Thompson. Hebius lacrima spec. nov. is distinguished from other species of the genera Hebius, Amphiesma Duméril, Bibron Duméril and Herpetoreas Günther, by the combination of an elongate body, 19 dorsal scale rows at midbody, a distinctive broad, white band on the supralabials interrupted by a dark blotch below the eye, absence of dorsolateral stripes replaced by series of transversally elliptical or divided dorsolateral spots, a cream venter with lateral dark blotches, and scales of the first dorsal scale row entirely smooth. The interrupted, broad, lateral stripe of the head differentiates Hebius lacrima spec. nov. from all other species of the genera Hebius and Herpetoreas inhabiting the Indo-Himalayan and Indochinese Regions. This new species is compared in detail with other Asian species of Natricidae having 19 dorsal scale rows.

A review of the relationships of Xenochrophis cerasogaster Cantor, 1839 (Serpentes: Colubridae) to its congeners.

We sampled snakes of the genus Xenochrophis from across Northeast India. The snakes were evaluated for both morphological and molecular parameters. Phylogenetic relationship was reconstructed using mitochondrial genes (Cytb, 12s rRNA, ND4). The genus Xenochrophis was found to be paraphyletic, X. piscator complex and X. punctulatus form a single clade with Atretium schistosum as their sister taxon. X. cerasogaster forms a distinct lineage. X. vittatus and X. trianguligerus are related to the genus Rhabdophis. Herein it is recommended that X. piscator complex, i.e. X. asperrimus, X. flavipunctatus, X. melanzostus, X. piscator, X. sanctijohannis, X. schnurrenbergeri and X. tytleri, as well as X. punctulatus be reallocated to the genus Fowlea.